Stoic Ethics and War

This article will examine Stoic Ethics as applied to warfare, and in particular to the individual warfighter. Can an understanding of Stoic Ethics help the warfighter deal with the emotional and moral vicissitudes combat can engender? 

War, that age-old strife that humanity seems unable to break free of, has been with us since our beginning, and may one day be our end. The physical and psychological consequences of war on the individual can be devastating. Some of the techniques for dealing with the trauma of combat are cognitive behavioral therapy, exercise, sharing experiences with your comrades, psychotherapy, mindfulness, medication and more. But what of Stoicism and Stoic Ethics in particular? 

From Marcus Aurelius to Secretary of Defense James Mattis, the military has always had a fascination with Stoicism. Some modern military thinkers include LTC Thomas Jarrett, a Senior Military Behavioral Health Officer and former Green Beret, who created the Warrior Resilience Training Program based on Stoicism. This program was taught to US troops during the Iraq War. To Jarret, Stoicism is a “philosophical resilience system developed in the crucible of suffering”. “Service members are taught that their operating philosophies and appraisals directly determine their emotions and choices. Stoicism helps independent soldiers manage their own emotions and expectations, vs. being overly controlling or hyper-responsible” (Donald Peterson, February 16, 2020). Nancy Sherman, who is currently Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at Georgetown University held the Distinguished Chair in Ethics at the United States Naval Academy, from 1997 to 1999, is another example. She is the author of Stoic Warriors: The Ancient Philosophy Behind The Military Mind.

According to Sherman, the book “Explores the deep, lasting value that Stoicism can yield, in issues of military leadership and character; in the Stoic conception of anger and its control; and in Stoic thinking about fear and resilience, grief and mourning, and the value of camaraderie and brotherhood” (Sherman 2005). These academics and leaders all find something viable and compelling about Stoicism as applied to war and the modern warfighter. After all, one of the basic tenets of Stoic Ethics is the theory of oikeiosis. This theory states that the basic drive in all animals is self-preservation. This most basic of instincts is on full display in a war zone. Another core tenet is the idea that some things are ‘up to us ‘ and some things are ‘not up to us’. Everything else is ‘indifferent’, meaning neither good nor bad. Since we cannot choose our external circumstances, we can, with practice, choose how we judge and process them. We will explore these points further in this article. 

The captivity and torture endured by Naval Aviator James Stockdale at the infamous ‘Hanoi Hilton’ is vividly portrayed in his 1995 book titled “Thoughts Of a Philosophical Fighter Pilot”. On a mission over the enemy’s capital, Stockdales’ fighter jet was hit by a surface to air missile . Stockdale ejected from his plane and as his parachute deployed he thought to himself, 

“I am now leaving the world of technology and entering the world of Epictetus” (Stockdale 1995). 

He was about to endure seven and a half years of the most brutal soul killing torture and intimidation at the hands of the North Vietnamese. Four of those years would be in solitary confinement. Stockdale’s leg was broken by an angry mob when he landed. It would never heal properly as he received no medical treatment from his captors. In this grim situation Stockdale clung to several memorized passages of ‘The Enchiridion’. An example is Enchiridion 9: 

“Sickness is an impediment to the body, but not to the will unless itself pleases. Lameness is an impediment to the leg. But not to the will; and say this to yourself with regard to everything that happens. For you will find it to be an impediment to something else, but not truly to yourself”. 

Stockdale used the above passage and others to help him keep his dignity and self-respect during those long years of captivity. As senior officer, Stockdale was responsible for the other prisoners. When a prisoner was in solitary confinement, coded taps between the walls would be used to communicate orders or just to let the man know his comrades had not forgotten him. This communication method was eventually discovered. As Senior Officer it was Stockdale who was tortured and put in solitary confinement. He would remain there for four long years. Where did this sense of duty and responsibility come from? Stoic ethics teaches that there is a “natural” duty called kathekon. It comes to us without any deliberation and in an unfeigned way (Sellars 2006). It was a natural duty for Stockdale to look after his men and take responsibility for their actions. He didn’t need to think or deliberate about it. It was also his duty militarily. In this particular sense Stoic ethical teaching and military responsibility and duty are in accord with one another. 

So is Stoic Ethics a good fit for the military? George Washington seemed to think so. Like all of the founding fathers, Washington had a deep reverence for the republican government of ancient Rome with its Senate, Patricians (aristocrats), pursuing the “Cursus Honorum” (a sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians), and Plebeians (the common people), represented by Tribunes of the Plebs, an important check on the power of the Senate and Magistrates. Washington was also familiar with the Roman Stoics, Seneca, Helvidius Priscus, Musonius Rufus, Marcus Aurelius and especially Cato the Younger (Cato was regarded more as a Stoic practitioner than writer or teacher). 

During the winter of 1776, things looked dire for the nascent American Revolution. The Continental Army had endured a string of defeats and was encamped at Valley Forge Pennsylvania for the winter. The officers and men suffered greatly in the extreme cold. Washington was concerned for his men. The Continental Congress was in arrears with their pay, many of the soldiers’ enlistments were up and they just wanted to go home. At this critical juncture Washington staged a play for his troops. One of the most popular plays in 18th century America was entitled Cato by Joseph Addison ( Will Leveritt, May 4, 2016). It was one of Washington’s favorites and related directly to everything the revolution was trying to achieve. Representative government, respect for private property, a government of checks and balances, freedom from the arbitrary whims of one man. The play portrayed Cato, an aristocratic Roman, deeply concerned for his country’s Republican values. 

Julius Caesar, flush with his victories in Gaul (parts of modern day France), had crossed the Rubicon river with his legions and marched on Rome, intending to proclaim himself dictator. A battle was fought and a defeated Cato found himself isolated with his army in Utica (North Africa). Caesar’s legions were nearby. The end of the Roman Republic was at hand. Cato remained defiant even when his slain son’s body was brought before him. In the end, Cato followed the example of many Stoics who would not betray their principles (their rational being), when confronted by Tyrants, and chose suicide. Along with Socrates, Cato was regarded by many ancient Stoics as having the qualities of the ideal Stoic sage. This passage from Epictetus explains the Stoic ethical attitude displayed by Cato: 

“When Vespasian sent for Helvidius Priscus and commanded him not to go into the senate, he replied, “it is in your power not to allow me to be a member of the senate, but so long as I am, I must go in.” “Well, go in then ,” says the emperor, “but say nothing.” “Do not ask my opinion , and I will be silent.” “But I must ask your opinion.” “And I must say what I think right.” “But if you do, I shall put you to death.” “When then did I tell you that I was immortal? You will do your part, and I will do mine: it is mine to die, it is your part to kill; it is mine to die, but not in fear: yours to banish me; mine to depart without sorrow” (Discourses 1.2.19-21).

This Stoic moral lesson of the capriciousness and cruelty of kings and dictators, and the bravery and sacrifice of free thinking rational men would not have been lost on Washington’s army. Stoic practitioner and author Massimo Pigliucci does not believe Stoicism and the military are a ‘virtuous’ coupling. He argues that one of Stoicism’s core ethical ideas is ‘cosmopolitanism’, or citizens of the world.This Stoic ethical tenet should be first and foremost, and citizenship of a city, country or state a poor second. Pigliucci goes on to state that “if soldiers were actually practicing Stoicism they would probably not be soldiers in the first place, or at the very least they would assent – to use Epictetus frequent phrase- only to just wars” (Massimo Pigliucci, April 22, 2023). He cites World War two as an example. 

I disagree with Pigliucci. To the Stoics war is a “dispreferred indifferent”. Whether it is just or unjust I leave it to the individual Stoic to use their “rational facility” to decide. War is external, it exists and is everywhere all the time. In its extreme form, the citizens of a society may lose their freedom or worse if they do not defend themselves. This is the theory of “oikeiosis’ ,but on an expanded scale. Although cosmopolitanism is the ideal, one world living in harmony, developing a platform for mutual cultural expression and tolerance, unfortunately it is not realistic. And let’s not forget that a Stoic is supposed to serve their family, their community and their nation. Socrates (held as the embodiment of a Stoic sage), although he was no lover of Athenian democracy nonetheless fought bravely in three campaigns during the Peloponnesian War. There are many other examples from Scipio Africanus the Younger who conquered Carthage in the Third Punic war to Marcus Aurelius the emperor of Rome. 

In combat, a warfighter may see a comrade blown apart by an IED (Improvised Explosive Device). Or, while clearing a house of suspected enemy activity, he/she may detect movement and shoot a child because the room was dark, and he/she reacted on instinct. These events produce strong emotions, terror, rage, fear and more. The Stoic tenet of “some things are up to us”, and “some things are not up to us”, with our emotions being within our control, can help warfighters cultivate control of their emotions and allow them to deal with the immense pressures of combat. The Stoics did not teach the eradication of all emotions, turning warriors into automatons, like the modern “dude bro” so called Stoics of modern hustle culture, but to use reason to gain some control of the rage, anger, self loathing and despair that the crucible of combat can produce. 

In conclusion, I would argue that Stoic ethics even decoupled from Stoic logic and physics could be beneficial to the modern warfighter. Stoic ethical principles could allow the warfighter to concentrate on what they can control such as their conduct and the protection of their unit. This allows them to stay focused on the task at hand and make reasoned decisions and judgements under extreme pressure. Ideas such as apatheia (freedom from passions) and prohairesis (withholding assent to emotions), could provide the warfighter with a solid moral framework. The goal is to help the warfighter process the complex emotions engendered by combat and when their military service is complete, reintegrate into civilian life as a healthy and productive citizen. Stoic ethical principles are one way to achieve that goal.