Stoicism and the Warrior Ethos

“Out of every one hundred men, ten shouldn’t even be there, eighty are just targets, nine are the real fighters, and we are lucky to have them, for they make the battle. Ah, but the one, one is a warrior and he will bring the others back.”

Attributed to Heraclitus

In the above quote, Heraclitus confirms that the Warrior Ethos is not only defined by the ability to fight but by the commitment to serve others, and to uphold Virtue through practical application of justice, courage, temperance and wisdom. Warriors develop their skills over a lifetime by using their experiences to positively impact their community and support those around them.

Descriptions about the characteristics of a warrior are replete in the literature, and they all sound very Stoic indeed. In Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Nietzsche 1883, p. 32) the protagonist implores “warriors to let their highest hope be the highest thought of life” indicating a pursuit of virtuous ideals that transcend ordinary human experience. Another example is found in the sacred Hindu text Bhagavad Gita (Easwaran 2007, verse 22) which states that a warrior is the “one who is not disturbed by the dualities of happiness and distress, and is unbothered by the changes of the body, (and) is certainly eligible for liberation.” Musonius Rufus wrote that “since every man dies, it is better to die with distinction than to live long.” (King 2001, p. 86). 

According to these texts, it is clear that there are honourable qualities of a warrior that go beyond the typical image of an efficient fighting machine, but do these qualities echo the tenets of Stoic Ethics? 

This essay aims to align this Warrior Ethos with Stoic Ethics. I will begin by exploring the definition of a just war, then discuss how Stoic Ethics relates to the Warrior Ethos, and finally, discuss the ethical implications of being a frontline combatant, from a Stoic viewpoint.

A Just War

The idea of a just war has been debated for centuries and is entrenched in discussions about the morality of warfare. These debates establish criteria that determine when it is justifiable to go to war (jus ad bellum), and how to conduct warfare ethically (jus in bello). 

Stoic Ethics offers a clear definition on what a just war is by emphasising virtue, reason, and the importance of living in accordance with Nature. This allows the evaluation of the moral and ethical implications of armed conflict. Since virtue is the highest good, actions should be guided by reason and the pursuit of virtue rather than by revenge, passion or desire. This can be extended to the realm of war, where the motivation behind armed conflict must be dissected. 

A just war is one that is fought for virtuous reasons, such as the defense of the home country, the protection of the innocent, or the restoration of justice. Wars driven by territorial land grabs, racial cleansing, resource security (oil, lithium, minerals, water), or the desire for power are unjust, as they do not align with the commitment to virtue.

In The Republic, Plato suggests that war should be waged only for the sake of justice and the common good, where a just society is one whose rulers (the philosopher-kings) govern with wisdom and virtue. War is justified when it is necessary to protect the state from external threats or to restore justice. The motivations behind war must be noble, and the conduct of war must adhere to ethical standards, ensuring that the innocents are protected with the ultimate goal being peace and harmony (Lee 2007).

Aristotle further develops the idea of a just war in his Nicomachean Ethics and Politics, in which war can be justified if it serves a greater good. There is an emphasis on the importance of proportionality in warfare, where the means used in war should be proportional to the ends sought. This principle of proportionality remains a cornerstone of Just War Theory (Riechberg 2008) and helps to ensure that wars are conducted within a framework of law and order, rather than descending into cruel anarchy. Aristotle’s principle of last resort is also significant in Just War Theory as all non-violent options must be exhausted before resorting to armed conflict. Diplomacy, negotiation, and other peaceful means should be attempted to resolve disputes before considering war as a viable option (Beresford 2020 and Saunders & Sinclair 1981).

In De Officiis (On Duty), Cicero argues that a just war must be declared for a legitimate cause, and asserts that wars should be conducted with honour and integrity, adhering to the principles of Virtue. The moral obligations of leaders in wartime must reflect a deep understanding of justice and not promote selfish political goals. The true measure of a state’s greatness lies in its commitment to justice, even in the context of war (Miller 1913).

Seneca proposes a more critical perspective on war as he often reflects on the futility and destructiveness of war, arguing that it is not always justified. Seneca emphasises the moral and ethical implications of violence, suggesting that true strength lies in the ability to resolve conflicts through reason and dialogue rather than through force. Leaders should seek peaceful resolutions and consider the immense suffering that war inflicts on individuals and societies. War planners should approach conflict with a clear mind, understanding that while one cannot control the outcomes of war, one can control their responses and actions. This acceptance of fate (amor fati) encourages soldiers and leaders to act with integrity and honour, even in the brutal, pandemonium of battle (Campbell 1969 and The Modern Stoic 2025). 

Turning to social oikeiosis (cosmopolitanism), a just war is one that seeks to protect not only the home nation but also the broader human community. Hollis has suggested that military intervention for War to prevent genocide and to uphold human rights is viewed as a just cause as serves the global desire to unite humanity against organised crime and terrorism (Hollis 1992). This aligns with the ideal of promoting the common good.

However, this view of a just war is problematic as conflict often involves difficult moral dilemmas and the line between just and unjust is often blurred. The suffering and destruction caused by war can challenge the commitment to virtue and the well-being of humanity. Even Shakespeare detailed the unjustified horrors of civil war and the trauma of human suffering in the line “O war! Thou son of hell, whom angry heavens do make their minister” (Lynelle 2017, Act V, Scene 2).

Stoic Ethics of War

Since Marcus Aurelius through to modern military personnel, the armed forces have always had a keen interest in Stoicism with its inherent natural duty/kathekon and resilience acquisition being very attractive to military leaders (Sellars 2006). This supports the view that “ethical teaching and military responsibility and duty are in accord with one another” (Bowen 2023, p. 46).

Stoic Ethics encourages a process of reflection and reconciliation, urging individuals to confront the moral implications of their participation in war. This can lead to a commitment to justice and the rebuilding of communities, fostering a sense of responsibility for the well-being of others. By advocating for just causes, ethical conduct, and personal resilience, Stoicism offers valuable guidance for individuals navigating the moral complexities of war. Stoic Warriors (Sherman 2022, chap.3) comments that an obligation to justice and the well-being of humanity reminds us that even in the darkest times, soldiers have the capacity, and duty, to act with integrity and purpose. 

The importance of accepting the things we cannot control is an essential Stoic tool. In the context of war, this acceptance can lead to a more profound understanding of the suffering and chaos that accompany conflict. Maintaining inner peace and resilience, regardless of external circumstances can be particularly valuable for soldiers (and civilians), as it encourages individuals to focus on their responses to the horrors of war rather than becoming overwhelmed by them. By cultivating an attitude of acceptance, individuals can find strength and purpose even in the most challenging situations.

When Stoic Ethics and the Warrior Ethos are combined, it presents a unique set of traits that define a Stoic warrior. These traits not only guide individuals in their personal lives but also prepare them to face challenges with resilience and integrity.

A Stoic warrior embodies resilience, the ability to withstand adversity and bounce back from setbacks. This trait is rooted in the tenet that while we cannot control external events, we can control our responses to them. A Stoic warrior accepts challenges as part of life, viewing obstacles as opportunities for growth. This mindset fosters mental toughness, allowing them to endure hardships without succumbing to despair and panic. 

The traits of a Stoic warrior—resilience, discipline, courage, wisdom, humility, integrity, and compassion—create a powerful framework for navigating life’s challenges. By embodying these qualities, individuals can cultivate a mindset that not only prepares them for battle but also enriches their everyday lives, leading to a more fulfilling and virtuous existence. 

Discipline is a cornerstone of both Stoicism and the Warrior Ethos. A Stoic warrior practices self-discipline in all aspects of life, from physical training to emotional regulation. This trait enables them to maintain focus on their goals, resist temptations, and adhere to their principles, even in the face of distractions or difficulties. Discipline ensures that a Stoic warrior remains committed to their values and purpose.

Courage plays a significant role in the conduct of military units during war. True courage is not the absence of fear but the ability to act rightly in the face of fear. Soldiers are called to embody this courage, not only in battle but also in their moral choices. This means adhering to ethical principles even in the chaos of war, such as treating prisoners humanely and avoiding unnecessary violence. In Stoic Warriors (Sherman 2022, Chap.2) suggests that soldiers should remain rational and reflective, making decisions based on ethical considerations rather than succumbing to the passions that often accompany warfare. Courage is essential for any warrior, but for a Stoic warrior, it takes on a deeper meaning – it is not merely the absence of fear but the ability to act rightly in the face of fear. A Stoic warrior confronts their fears with rationality, understanding that fear is a natural human emotion. This cultivates the courage to face uncomfortable truths, make difficult decisions, and stand up for their beliefs, regardless of the consequences.

Wisdom, the ability to discern what is truly important, is a vital trait of a Stoic warrior. This involves understanding the nature of the world, recognising what is within one’s control, and making decisions based on reason alone. A Stoic warrior seeks knowledge and understanding, learning from experiences and the teachings of others. This wisdom guides their actions and helps them navigate the complexities of both civilian and military life with clarity.

A Stoic warrior practices humility, recognizing their limitations and the transient nature of life (Putnam 2003). They understand that no one is infallible and that everyone has room for growth. This trait fosters a sense of gratitude and appreciation for others, allowing a Stoic warrior to learn from those around them. Humility also prevents arrogance, ensuring that they remain grounded and focused on their mission rather than seeking personal glory. Integrity is the alignment of one’s actions with their values and principles. A Stoic warrior acts with honesty and honour, even when faced with temptations to compromise. This trait builds trust and respect, both to oneself and from others. A Stoic warrior understands that true strength lies in maintaining one’s moral compass, regardless of external pressures. 

After a conflict, individuals and societies must grapple with, and process, the consequences of their actions (Sherman 2022, chap. 6). The emotions experienced by the aftermath of war also invites reflection, as this is up to us. The importance of learning from experiences and striving for personal growth results in resilience. While stoicism is often associated with emotional detachment, a Stoic warrior recognises the importance of compassion. They understand that everyone faces struggles and that empathy can strengthen bonds and foster cooperation. A Stoic warrior uses their strength not only for personal gain but also to uplift others, embodying the Stoic principle of interconnectedness.

Ethical Implications of Combatants

Stoic philosophy offers a profound lens through which to examine the moral complexities faced by a soldier in the act of combat, whose ultimate aim is killing the enemy. From a Stoic perspective, the act of killing in battle is not inherently good or evil; rather, it is the intention and context that matter. Stoics believe that virtue is the highest good, and actions should align with reason and moral integrity. A soldier, therefore, must reflect on the motivations behind their actions. If the act of killing is driven by a sense of duty to protect one’s country, comrades, or innocent lives, it may be viewed as a necessity in the pursuit of a greater good. The Stoic soldier recognises that while the act of taking a life is grave, it can be justified in the context of defending justice and maintaining order. Death is not merely an event, or tragic accident, but an opportunity and proof of the sanctification of a lifetime. From a Logic viewpoint, killing could be the only logical outcome. Stoicism views suicide as justified if it has a rational outcome, therefore killing an enemy to serve a rational outcome like Justice or protect society is acceptable (Long, p. 206).

Further, Stoicism teaches the importance of emotional resilience. A soldier may experience a range of emotions (fear, anger, guilt) when faced with the necessity of killing an enemy. Stoics advocate for the practice of apatheia, the ability to remain undisturbed by external events. This does not mean suppressing emotions but rather understanding and managing them. A Stoic soldier would strive to maintain composure, recognising that emotions are natural but should not dictate one’s actions. By cultivating inner strength and clarity of thought, the soldier can approach the act of killing with a sense of detachment, focusing on the duty at hand rather than being overwhelmed by personal feelings, such as guilt or remorse.

The Stoic view also emphasizes the interconnectedness of humanity. Marcus Aurelius, in his meditations, often reflects on the idea that all humans are part of a larger whole. This perspective can lead to a complex understanding of the enemy. While the soldier may be required to kill, they must also acknowledge the shared humanity of their adversary. This recognition can foster a sense of compassion, even in the midst of conflict, and is visible in the Warrior Ethos. The Stoic soldier understands that the enemy, too, has their own reasons, fears, and struggles. This awareness can mitigate the dehumanisation that often accompanies warfare, allowing the soldier to act with a sense of moral clarity.

Furthermore, Stoicism teaches acceptance of fate. In the chaos of battle, a soldier must accept the unpredictability of life and death. The Stoic soldier understands that while they can control their actions and responses, they cannot control the outcomes of those actions. This acceptance can provide solace in the face of loss, whether it be the loss of comrades or the burden of having taken a life. By embracing the inevitability of fate, the soldier can find peace amidst the turmoil of war.

The Stoic view of a soldier killing an enemy is complex, emphasising virtue, emotional resilience, interconnectedness, and acceptance of fate. While the act of killing is fraught with moral complexity, Stoicism provides a framework for understanding and navigating these challenges. A Stoic soldier approaches the battlefield with a commitment to duty, a recognition of shared humanity, and an acceptance of the unpredictable nature of life, striving to act with integrity and purpose in the face of adversity.

The Verdict

For many combatants, the trauma of battle can last a lifetime. Stoic Ethics offers a practical method for military personnel to progress towards attainment of the Warrior Ethos, without being reduced to an unusable human being whose life is governed by external events. Thus, combatants can avoid and rationally process the trauma of conflict in operational theatres by following the tenets of Stoic Ethics.  For soldiers, the Stoic Virtues can be particularly relevant in high-pressure environments where decisions can have life-or-death consequences.

Wisdom involves understanding the nature of reality and making sound judgments. For a soldier, wisdom means recognizing the complexities of combat situations, assessing risks, and making informed decisions based on available information. Soldiers can cultivate wisdom by engaging in continuous learning, seeking mentorship, and reflecting on their experiences.

Courage is not merely the absence of fear but the ability to act rightly in the face of fear. In combat, soldiers often encounter situations that test their bravery. Stoic courage encourages soldiers to confront their fears, whether it be the fear of death, injury, or failure. By embracing their fears and acting in accordance with their values, soldiers can maintain their composure and effectiveness in battle.

Justice in Stoicism refers to treating others fairly and with respect. For soldiers, this means adhering to the rules of engagement, respecting the rights of non-combatants, and fostering camaraderie among fellow soldiers. Upholding justice can help maintain morale and cohesion within a unit, which is crucial for operational success.

Temperance emphasizes self-control and moderation. In the context of military life, temperance can help soldiers manage their emotions, avoid reckless behavior, and maintain focus on their duties. Practicing temperance can also involve managing stress and ensuring that personal desires do not interfere with mission objectives.

Soldiers can apply Stoic principles during training by focusing on the process rather than the outcome. By concentrating on improving their skills and knowledge, soldiers can cultivate resilience and adaptability. Embracing the Stoic idea of “amor fati” (love of fate) allows soldiers to accept challenges as opportunities for growth, enhancing their performance in combat.

Incorporating mindfulness practices can help soldiers develop self-awareness and emotional regulation. Regular reflection on their actions and decisions can foster a deeper understanding of their motivations and ethical responsibilities. Journaling, meditation, or discussions with peers can facilitate this reflective practice, allowing soldiers to align their actions with Stoic virtues.

In combat, soldiers often face rapid decision-making scenarios. Stoic ethics can guide soldiers in these moments by encouraging them to pause, assess the situation, and consider the ethical implications of their choices. By focusing on what they can control—such as their reactions and decisions—soldiers can navigate complex moral dilemmas with clarity and integrity.

The realities of combat can lead to significant emotional and psychological challenges, including grief and trauma. Stoicism teaches acceptance of loss as a natural part of life. Soldiers can find solace in the Stoic belief that while they cannot control external events, they can control their responses. This perspective can help soldiers process their experiences, fostering resilience and emotional strength.

Stoicism emphasizes the importance of community and relationships. Soldiers can apply this principle by fostering strong bonds with their comrades, supporting one another through challenges, and promoting a culture of mutual respect and accountability. By embodying Stoic virtues in their interactions, soldiers can create a positive environment that enhances unit cohesion and effectiveness.

To this end, the Discipline of Assent and the Discipline of Desire guide the Stoic Warrior through the dread of warfare. Marcus Aurelius reminds us and encourages us that the objective acceptance of all things, constantly is “… all you need.” (Meditations 9.6).

I will finish with a snippet of Wisdom from Miyamoto Musashi, the legendary samurai warrior of the 16th Century who wrote the Dokkodo, a book that embodies what it means to be a Stoic warrior, “There is nothing outside of yourself that can ever enable you to get better, stronger, richer, quicker, or smarter. Everything is within. Everything exists. Seek nothing outside of yourself.” (Latimore 2024, chap. 2)